Free Essays on Emile Durkheim

EMILE DURKHEIM Functionalism as a Sociological Perspective Functionalism is often referred to as ‘consensus’ theory because it doesn’t address the issue of conflict in society, rather it projects and ideal picture of harmonious social relationships. Historical Background It emerged in Europe in the 19th century as a response to what was perceived as a crisis of social order. This crisis seemed to be the result of two developments: - 1. The emergence of a new industrial society with it’s subsequent loss of community – poor working conditions, increase in crime, growth of housing slums, poverty etc. 2. The French revolution which suggested ideals of equality, happiness and freedom of the individual. 3. These historical conditions which were seen to approximate a crisis of economic and political order thus gave rise to a very conservative type of sociology which reflects a concern with the need for social order and integration. This is necessary if the social and economic crisis was to be overcome and controlled. Main ideas in Functionalism The starting point of all Functionalism is that all societies have certain basic needs - Functional requirements which must be met if a society is to survive. Functionalists are therefore concerned with the contribution the various parts of a society make towards those needs. All Functionalism is concerned with the basic need and desirability for social order and stability to prevail in society. Explaining Social Order In explaining the basis of social order in societies the starting point for Functionalists is to look at whole societies and not the individual; they explore the ways in which the various parts which make up a society function to maintain social order. Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim draws an analogy between the way a biological organism works and society. The various organs of a living thing work together in order to maintain a healthy whole in much the same way that... Free Essays on Emile Durkheim Free Essays on Emile Durkheim EMILE DURKHEIM Functionalism as a Sociological Perspective Functionalism is often referred to as ‘consensus’ theory because it doesn’t address the issue of conflict in society, rather it projects and ideal picture of harmonious social relationships. Historical Background It emerged in Europe in the 19th century as a response to what was perceived as a crisis of social order. This crisis seemed to be the result of two developments: - 1. The emergence of a new industrial society with it’s subsequent loss of community – poor working conditions, increase in crime, growth of housing slums, poverty etc. 2. The French revolution which suggested ideals of equality, happiness and freedom of the individual. 3. These historical conditions which were seen to approximate a crisis of economic and political order thus gave rise to a very conservative type of sociology which reflects a concern with the need for social order and integration. This is necessary if the social and economic crisis was to be overcome and controlled. Main ideas in Functionalism The starting point of all Functionalism is that all societies have certain basic needs - Functional requirements which must be met if a society is to survive. Functionalists are therefore concerned with the contribution the various parts of a society make towards those needs. All Functionalism is concerned with the basic need and desirability for social order and stability to prevail in society. Explaining Social Order In explaining the basis of social order in societies the starting point for Functionalists is to look at whole societies and not the individual; they explore the ways in which the various parts which make up a society function to maintain social order. Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim draws an analogy between the way a biological organism works and society. The various organs of a living thing work together in order to maintain a healthy whole in much the same way that... Free Essays on Emile Durkheim Emile Durkheim was born in the eastern French province of Lorraine on April 15, 1858. He was the s on of a rabbi and descending from a long line of rabbis, he decided early that he would follow the family tradition and become a rabbi himself. He studied Hebrew, the Old Testament, and the Talmud, while following the regular course of in secular schools. He soon turned away from all religious involvement, though purposely not from interest in religious phenomena, and became a freethinker, or non-believer. At about the time of his graduation he decided that he would dedicate himself to the scientific study of society. Since sociology was not a subject either at the secondary schools or at the university, Durkheim launched a career as a teacher in philosophy. Emile Durkheim made many contributions to the study of society, suicide, the division of labor, solidarity and religion. Raised in a time of troubles in France, Durkheim spent much of his talent justifying order and commitment to or der. Durkheim was a pioneer French sociologist, taught at Bordeaux (1887-1902) and the University of Paris (1902-17). He introduced the system and hypothetical framework of accurate social science. Durkheim was author of The Division of Labour (1893), Rules of Sociological Method (1895), Suicide (1897), Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1915). Emile Durkheim has often been characterized as the founder of professional sociology. He has a great closeness with the two introductory sociologists, Comte and Saint-Simon. Durkheim willingly noticed the ideas of the Division of Labor and the Biological Analogy. Both ideas which had been differently well developed by Comte and Saint-Simon. Durkheim’s holism approach said that sociology should focus on and study large social operations and cultures. He used functionalism, an approach of studying social and cultural phenomena as a set of interdependent parts, to find out the roles these institutions and processes pl...

John Fremont - John C. Fremont - Civil War - Valley Campaign

John Fremont - John C. Fremont - Civil War - Valley Campaign John C. Frmont - Early Life: Born January 21, 1813, John C. Frà ©mont was the illegitimate son of Charles Fremon (formerly Louis-Renà © Frà ©mont) and Anne B. Whiting. The daughter of a socially prominent Virginia family, Whiting began an affair with Fremon while she was married to Major John Pryor. Leaving her husband, Whiting and Fremon ultimately settled in Savannah. Though Pryor sought a divorce, it was not granted by the Virginia House of Delegates. As a result, Whiting and Fremon were never able to marry. Raised in Savannah, their son pursued a classical education and began attending the College of Charleston in the late 1820s. John C. Frmont - Going West: In 1835, he received an appointment to serve as a teacher of mathematics aboard USS Natchez. Remaining on board for two years, he left to pursue a career in civil engineering. Appointed a second lieutenant in the US Armys Corps of Topographical Engineers, he began taking part in surveying expeditions in 1838. Working with Joseph Nicollet, he aided in mapping the lands between the Missouri and Mississippi Rivers. Having gained experience, he was tasked with charting the Des Moines River in 1841. That same year, Frà ©mont married Jessie Benton, the daughter of powerful Missouri Senator Thomas Hart Benton. The following year, Frà ©mont was ordered to prepare an expedition to South Pass (in present-day Wyoming). In planning the expedition, he met noted frontiersman Kit Carson and contracted him to guide the party. This marked the first of several collaborations between the two men. The expedition to South Pass proved a success and over the next four years Frà ©mont and Carson explored the Sierra Nevadas and other lands along the Oregon Trail. Earning some fame for his exploits in the west, Frà ©mont was given the nickname The Pathfinder. John C. Frmont - Mexican-American War: In June 1845, Frà ©mont and Carson departed St. Louis, MO with 55 men for an expedition up the Arkansas River. Rather than follow the expeditions stated goals, Frà ©mont diverted the group and marched directly to California. Arriving in the Sacramento Valley, he worked to agitate American settlers against the Mexican government. When this nearly led to a clash with Mexican troops under General Josà © Castro, he withdrew north to Klamath Lake in Oregon. Alerted to the outbreak of the Mexican-American War, he moved south and worked with American settlers to form the California Battalion (US Mounted Rifles). Serving as its commander, with the rank of lieutenant colonel, Frà ©mont worked with Commodore Robert Stockton, commander of the US Pacific Squadron, to wrest the coastal towns of California away from the Mexicans. During the campaign, his men captured Santa Barbara and Los Angeles. On January 13, 1847, Frà ©mont concluded the Treaty of Cahuenga with Governor Andres Pico which terminated the fighting in California. Three days later, Stockton appointed him the military governor of California. His rule proved short-lived as the recently arrived Brigadier General Stephen W. Kearny asserted that the post was rightly his. John C. Frmont - Entering Politics: Initially refusing to yield the governorship, Frà ©mont was court-martialed by Kearny and convicted of mutiny and disobedience. Though quickly pardoned by President James K. Polk, Frà ©mont resigned his commission and settled in California at Rancho Las Mariposas. In 1848-1849, he conducted a failed expedition to scout a route for a railroad from St. Louis to San Francisco along the 38th Parallel. Returning to California, he was appointed one of the states first US senators in 1850. Serving for a year, he soon became involved with the newly-formed Republican Party. An opponent to the expansion of slavery, Frà ©mont became prominent within the party and was nominated as its first presidential candidate in 1856. Running against Democrat James Buchanan and American Party candidate Millard Fillmore, Frà ©mont campaigned against the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the growth of slavery. Though defeated by Buchanan, he finished second and showed that the party could achieve an electoral victory in 1860 with the support of two more states. Returning to private life, he was in Europe when the Civil War began in April 1861. John C. Frmont - The Civil War: Eager to aid the Union, he purchased a large amount of arms before returning to the United States. In May 1861, President Abraham Lincoln appointed Frà ©mont a major general. Though largely done for political reasons, Frà ©mont was soon dispatched to St. Louis to command the Department of the West. Arriving in St. Louis, he began fortifying the city and quickly moved to bring Missouri into the Union camp. While his forces campaigned in the state with mixed results, he remained in St. Louis. Following a defeat at Wilsons Creek in August, he declared martial law in the state. Acting without authorization, he began confiscating property belonging to secessionists as well as issued an order emancipating slaves. Stunned by Frà ©monts actions and concerned they would hand Missouri to the South, Lincoln immediately directed him to revoke his orders. Refusing, he dispatched his wife to Washington, DC to argue his case. Ignoring her arguments, Lincoln relieved Frà ©mont on November 2, 1861. Though the War Department issued a report detailing Frà ©monts failings as a commander, Lincoln was politically pressured into giving him another command. As a result, Frà ©mont was appointed to lead the Mountain Department, which comprised parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky, in March 1862. In this role, he conducted operations against Major General Thomas Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley. Through the late spring of 1862, Frà ©monts men were beaten at McDowell (May 8) and he was personally defeated at Cross Keys (June 8). In late June, Frà ©monts command was slated to join Major General John Popes newly-formed Army of Virginia. As he was senior to Pope, Frà ©mont refused this assignment and returned to his home in New York to await another command. None was forthcoming. John C. Frmont - 1864 Election Later Life: Still noteworthy within the Republican Party, Frà ©mont was approached in 1864 by hard-line Radical Republicans who disagreed with Lincolns lenient positions on postwar reconstruction of the South. Nominated for president by this group, his candidacy threatened to split the party. In September 1864, Frà ©mont abandoned his bid after negotiating the removal of Postmaster General Montgomery Blair. Following the war, he purchased the Pacific Railroad from the state of Missouri. Reorganizing it as the Southwest Pacific Railroad in August 1866, he lost it the following year when he was unable to make payments on the purchase debt. Having lost most of his fortune, Frà ©mont returned to public service in 1878 when he was appointed governor of the Arizona Territory. Holding his position until 1881, he was largely dependent on income from his wifes writing career. Retiring to Staten Island, NY, he died in New York City on July 13, 1890. Selected Sources Civil War: John C. FremontCalifornia Military Museum: John C. Fremont Biographical Dictionary of the US Congress: John C. Fremont